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Notes:

The current Rocky Mountain beetle outbreaks are a natural consequence in forests that have been here during 10,000 years of disturbances. Fossil insects tell us that beetle outbreaks have been here as long as trees, but to mice and men this seems like a catastrophe. With climate change, even plant associations thought to be stable for millenia are now seen to change relatively quickly. Forests can become meadows and meadows can become forests. With warmer climates, overstocked stands may be replaced by shrubs and herbs rather than young trees.